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Unification of Italy 1859–70
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Unification of Italy 1859–70

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As with Germany, Italian nationalism was incubated under Napoleonic rule. The Carbonari, an aristocratic secret society, spread insurrection with foreign aid, while Mazzini’s Young Italy movement was grassroots and republican. Rebellions in 1848 were quickly snuffed out, but in 1859 the kingdom of Sardinia annexed Lombardy from the Austrians after... More
Unification of Wales 800
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Unification of Wales 800

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The Kings of Gwynedd were the dominant force in Wales from the 9th century, but their own laws of succession, with their realms being divided between their male heirs, repeatedly confounded their ambitions to rule all of Wales. In addition, they had to fend off repeated Saxon invasions, usually from... More
Unification of Wales and England 1536
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Unification of Wales and England 1536

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The Marcher Lords of Wales were a throwback to the Norman Conquest, enjoying wide feudal powers, including the right to build castles, administer their own justice and even (theoretically, at least) to declare war. Over the centuries these powers had eroded, through the reversion of lordships (without heir) to the... More
Union Pacific 1862–1961
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Union Pacific 1862–1961

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President Lincoln signed the Pacific Railroad Act (1862), which directed the Union Pacific (UP) and Central Pacific (CP) to build the US’s first transcontinental railroad. The railroad was to stretch from Missouri to the Pacific, described by a Boston paper as a ‘ruinous space’, both to encourage trade and settlement... More
United Nations Partition Plan November 1947
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United Nations Partition Plan November 1947

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In 1947, the UN voted for the partition of Palestine to create independent Jewish and Arab sectors. Jews and Arabs in the region had been at odds for decades; while the Zionist Jews sought an independent state, the native Arabs wanted to stem Jewish immigration and set up a secular... More
University Foundations in Britain 1264–1967
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University Foundations in Britain 1264–1967

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Oxford’s history as a centre of scholastic study dates to the 11th century. A violent dispute with townspeople led to a partial exodus of students to Cambridge (1209); the first Oxbridge colleges were endowed later in the century. Thereafter, the Oxbridge duopoly of university education in England continued unchallenged until... More
Urban Expansion 1860–1900
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Urban Expansion 1860–1900

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In the 19th century, the US rapidly evolved from a predominantly rural to an overwhelmingly urban society. At play were the same catalysts which previously transformed industrial Europe, but the pace and magnitude eclipsed all precedents. High birth rates and decreasing mortality rates, combined with mass immigration, produced soaring population... More
US Current Religious Regions 2010
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US Current Religious Regions 2010

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Nowhere in the developed world places more importance on religious belief than the United States, and nowhere finds more diverse channels for expressing belief in the same god. Zonal demarcation fails to do justice to this rich variety, which glitters kaleidoscopically at county level. Hinduism is the second most popular... More
US Expansion 1867–1903
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US Expansion 1867–1903

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Between 1867–1903, the United States acquired Alaska, Hawaii, Guam, Puerto Rico, American Samoa and the Philippines. The Panama Canal zone, which consisted of the canal and a 5-mile (9.8-km) radius on each bank, was made ‘unincorporated US territory’ in 1903 by the new Republic of Panama. Alaska was purchased from... More
US Government and High Command 1914–1918
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US Government and High Command 1914–1918

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As the USA entered the war in 1917, new branches of government were created to ease the burden on the pre-existing peacetime administrative system. President Woodrow Wilson, although possessing ultimate jurisdiction over all aspects of the war effort, delegated combat decisions to the top ranks of the Army and Navy,... More
US Influence 1896–1952
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US Influence 1896–1952

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The Monroe Doctrine of 1823 opposed any further European colonization in the western hemisphere, effectively placed Latin America under US guardianship. In this context, the Spanish-American War (1898–1902), which led to Cuba and Puerto Rico being seized from Spain, was cast as supporting liberation from a colonial aggressor. However, until... More
US Influence in Latin America 1898–1970
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US Influence in Latin America 1898–1970

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Until the 1890s, the US had little interest in Latin America, but had business interests in Mexican mines and railroads. In the 1890s the US adopted a more outward looking foreign policy and enacted the Monroe doctrine of opposing European colonialism in the region. The US resolved a diplomatic crisis... More