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    Europe in 1815 After the Congress of Vienna

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    The Congress of Vienna convened to re-map post-Napoleonic Europe and prevent the rebuilding of a strong France. By February 1815, delegates from the European great powers and several other European countries had, through heated compromises, created a new map of Europe. Amongst other provisions, Russia retained most of the Napoleonic... More
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    Expansion of Prussia 1815–71

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    At Tilsit (1807), Napoleon ‘had but to raise his hand and Prussia would cease to exist’. The Prussians were helpless bystanders as France and Russia annexed over half their dominions. The critical intervention of Prussia’s most decorated soldier, General Blücher, at Waterloo exacted a sweet revenge on Napoleon; at Vienna... More
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    Expansion of Sparta 8th to 5th Centuries BCE

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    Sparta’s homeland was in Laconia, a Greek city-state in the southern Peloponnese. Run by a military elite who concentrated on warfare and politics, it forbade money-making activity. Each Spartan warrior was given a plot of land, farmed by state slaves (helots). Land was at a premium and in the 8th... More
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    France 1814–61

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    After the Congress of Vienna (1815) and the Bourbon Restoration in France, which became a constitutional monarchy under Louis XVIII, France’s political geography was reorganized and made uniform; it was divided into over 80 departments, many of which have survived into the 21st century, and power became more centralized. All... More
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    Ireland in June 1922

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    The revolutionary leader, soldier and politician Michael Collins argued that the Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) gave Ireland ‘the freedom to achieve freedom’. He also told his counterparty, Lord Birkenhead, that by signing it he had signed his own ‘death warrant’. This would prove prophetic: he was ambushed and killed by anti-Treaty... More
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    Italian Unification 1861

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    The unification of Italy, also known as the Risorgimento, was a complex process that transformed Italy from a mosaic of independent states, kingdoms and foreign-controlled territories into a united Italian state. The movement for Italian unification emerged in the early 19th century, fuelled by a desire for political independence, cultural... More
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    Italy 1815–1924

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    After the Napoleonic occupation ended in 1815, much of Italy wanted unification, but was prohibited from doing so by Austrian intervention. Under Austria’s insistence, a decision was made by conservative forces within Europe to restore Italy to its pre-Napoleonic borders. Austria was given control of the kingdom of Lombardy and... More
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    Korea 246 BCE–530 CE

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    The earliest northern Korean kingdom, founded in the later 1st millennium BCE, was Gojoseon while, in the south, the Jin kingdom dominated in the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE. In 108 BCE the Chinese Han dynasty defeated Gojoseon, bringing about the Proto-Three Kingdoms era, comprising a series of small independent... More
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    Natal and Zululand 1879

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    Britain agreed a border with Portuguese East Africa in 1875, and then accomplished the annexation, apparently painlessly, of Boer Transvaal in 1877. Now, the bullish British High Commissioner, Henry Bartle Frere, felt ready to move on the last major independent native kingdom: Zululand. Fomenting a dispute, British forces invaded in... More
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    Northwest Territories 1800–18

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    The Northwest territories existed as a legal entity between 1787 and 1803, at which point Ohio was admitted as a state, and the residual lands became the Indiana Territory. Originally, the capital of the new territory was Vincennes but when, in 1809, the Illinois Territory was carved out to the... More
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    Papal States in the 16th Century

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    During the Renaissance, the Papal States expanded, especially under Pope Alexander VI and Pope Julius II. By the time of the Reformation from 1517, followed by the Counter-Reformation from 1545, the Papal States claimed, or controlled, Parma, Modena, Bologna, Romagne and Perouse, in addition to Rome. The pope was not... More
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    Prussia and Austria 1815–66

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    The German Confederation was formed following the Congress of Vienna in 1815, originally comprising 34 states of the former Holy Roman Empire, with a further five joining in 1820. After the turmoil of the French Revolution and the defeat of Napoleon, aristocratic leaders of the various states of Germany saw... More
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