Warfare

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Poland c. 1700
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Poland c. 1700

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Augustus II, Elector of Saxony, converted to Roman Catholicism in order to succeed to the Polish throne after King John III Sobieski’s death in 1696. His rival, François Louis, prince of Conti, procured more votes, so there was some question over the legality of Augustus’s title. Conti disappeared to France,... More
Poland under the Third Reich 1939–45
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Poland under the Third Reich 1939–45

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The joint German and Soviet invasion of Poland in September 1939 resulted in World War II. During the following five years, 15 per cent of the Polish population perished and Poland was made to accommodate the mass extermination of the Jews in concentration camps. Germany immediately annexed western Poland, while... More
Politics of Emancipation 1862
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Politics of Emancipation 1862

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The First Confiscation Act, passed in August 1861, enabled court proceedings for the seizure of any Confederate property falling under Union control. This property would encompass slaves, but the Act did not specify that the slaves would then be freed, rather, they remained property, but in the custody of the... More
Politics of Emancipation: House Passes the Second Confiscation Act 11 July 1862
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Politics of Emancipation: House Passes the Second Confiscation Act 11 July 1862

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The first Confiscation Act was passed in July 1861, in the shocked aftermath to the Union’s humiliation at the first Battle of Bull Run. One explanation proffered for the unexpected military vigour of the Confederacy was the use of slave labour to free all whites to fight. The Act allowed... More
Politics of Emancipation: The Second Confiscation Act 17 July 1862
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Politics of Emancipation: The Second Confiscation Act 17 July 1862

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The Second Confiscation Act of 17 July 1862 was a law passed by the United States Congress during the US Civil War. It legalized the right of the Union to seize the land and property of disloyal citizens (the Confederates). It also made treachery a capital offence, punishable by death... More
Pompey’s Campaign Against Jerusalem 63 BCE
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Pompey’s Campaign Against Jerusalem 63 BCE

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The Roman general Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (Pompey) annexed Syria in 64 BCE. To the south, in Jerusalem, a war erupted between two Jewish princes, Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. After being besieged by Hyrcanus and his allies, while worshipping in a temple, Aristobulus despatched an envoy to Pompey asking for his help,... More
Pontiac’s Rebellion 1763–64
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Pontiac’s Rebellion 1763–64

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A confederation of Native American warriors, led by the Ottawa chief Pontiac, launched an assault on the British garrison at Detroit in April 1763. The Native Americans were angered by the harsh British treatment of them after the British victory in the French and Indian War (1754–63). Their intention was... More
Port Hudson Campaign 27 May ̶ 9 July 1863
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Port Hudson Campaign 27 May ̶ 9 July 1863

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Major General Nathanial P. Banks was tasked with destroying the Confederate stronghold at Port Hudson, on the Mississippi River. The Confederates had moved there in early May, to provide support to their army at Vicksburg. By 21 May, Banks’s had joined with further columns, swelling the Union numbers to 30,000... More
Port Royal 7 November 1861
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Port Royal 7 November 1861

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Flag Officer Samuel Du Pont was a scion of a wealthy dynasty and naval veteran of the Mexican War. The assault on Port Royal was his first opportunity to experiment with steam-power. His command contained 14 warships, and Du Pont decided to exploit the three-mile (5-km) breadth of Port Royal... More
Portchester Castle
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Portchester Castle

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As Portus Adurni, Portchester in present-day Hampshire was established as one of the ‘forts of the Saxon shore’, built by the Romans along the southeastern English coast in the 3rd century CE. At the time, Roman Britannia was suffering increasingly from cross-channel marauding from north European tribes. The ‘Count of... More
Post Colonial Wars 1948–89
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Post Colonial Wars 1948–89

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After achieving independence, many African states experienced various forms of armed conflict, which served to hold back economic and social development across the continent. The legacy of the old colonial borders is believed to have played an important role in this widespread conflict as they were drawn by the European... More
Post-1945 Military Involvement in Politics
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Post-1945 Military Involvement in Politics

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Military rule was ingrained in Latin America from the establishment of the viceroyalties of New Spain and Brazil (the preceding Aztec, Maya and Inca were hardly pacific cultures). The prevailing land use model – vast haciendas, supported by encomienda forced labour or the mass import of slaves – spawned oligarchic... More