Warfare

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Spanish Armada May–September 1588
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Spanish Armada May–September 1588

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A climax of the struggles between Catholic Spain and Protestant England, the failure of the Spanish Armada changed the course of European history. In response to Sir Francis Drake plundering the Spanish treasure fleet, Elizabeth I’s support of the Dutch and the execution of Mary Queen of Scots, Phillip II... More
Spanish Civil War February 1939
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Spanish Civil War February 1939

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By February 1939 Barcelona had fallen and the Nationalists dominated 70 per cent of Spain, except for a tiny strip of land north of Gerona and central-eastern Spain around Madrid. By February, the loss of Republican forces on several fronts and the two-year Siege of Madrid (where Republicans repeatedly repulsed... More
Spanish Civil War July 1936
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Spanish Civil War July 1936

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The Bourbon Restoration in 1874 was propped up by the charade of turnismo, by which alternating left- and right-leaning governments were achieved by ‘massaging’ the ballot. After a military coup in 1923 the Second Spanish Republic was established; it was genuinely democratic, but veered between increasingly polarized socialist and right-wing... More
Spanish Civil War May 1938
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Spanish Civil War May 1938

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In May 1938, Spain was split between the Nationalists and Republicans, with the Nationalists having dominance. In this month, the Nationalist leader, Francisco Franco, declared that the Republicans must unconditionally surrender. Although the Nationalists were in the ascendant, the Republican forces still believed that they had a chance of winning.... More
Spanish Civil War September 1937
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Spanish Civil War September 1937

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In September 1937, the military Junta under General Francisco Franco (who had seized power on 1 October 1936, sparking the Spanish Civil War), now controlled over half of Spain. Franco’s Nationalist ranks had swelled with the addition of Nazi funding, Italian troops from Fascist Italy and Spanish troops from Morocco.... More
Spanish Fleet Destroyed in Manila Bay 1898
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Spanish Fleet Destroyed in Manila Bay 1898

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On 1 May 1898, the US Asiatic squadron, led by Commodore Dewey, decimated the Spanish fleet at Manila Bay in the first battle of the Spanish-American War. After the February sinking of the USS Maine, believed by the US to be an act of Spanish aggression in response to American... More
Special Duties Flights 1941–45
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Special Duties Flights 1941–45

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From 1941 onwards, No. 138 and No. 161 Royal Air Force Squadrons were reformed as Special Duties Squadrons and deployed on hundreds of missions under the guidance of the Special Operations Executive. This was a top secret government organization involved in espionage operations all across occupied Europe. Overseeing a large... More
Spotsylvania 8–12 May 1864
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Spotsylvania 8–12 May 1864

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The Battle of Spotsylvania, Virginia (8–21 May) was the second major battle of Union commander Lt. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's campaign against Confederate commander General Robert E. Lee. Grant was determined to capture the road junction at Spotsylvania, a vital crossroads on the route to Richmond, the Confederate capital. Although... More
St Nazaire Raid, Operation Chariot 28 March 1942
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St Nazaire Raid, Operation Chariot 28 March 1942

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The St Nazaire Raid was conducted with the objective of destroying the Germans’ vital Atlantic repair port. Without it their warships had to venture past heavily defended UK waters for repairs. The British plan involved the use of HMS Campbeltown, an obsolete destroyer that had been stripped to raise its... More
Stalingrad Area 19 November-28 December 1942
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Stalingrad Area 19 November-28 December 1942

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As the start of the winter push to remove the Germans from Stalingrad, the Red Army conducted Operation Uranus to encircle the German 6th Army, which had become embedded in the city after months of fighting. On 19 November the operation began with a heavy attack focussed on the Romanian... More
Stalingrad Area June-September 1942
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Stalingrad Area June-September 1942

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The summer of 1942 saw a huge push of German Army Group South into southern Russia towards the city of Stalingrad as part of the larger movement towards the oilfields of the Caucasus. The German 6th Army advanced rapidly towards Stalingrad following a Russian fighting retreat whilst Army Group A... More
Standard Byzantine Battle Formations c. 600–1071 CE
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Standard Byzantine Battle Formations c. 600–1071 CE

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In the first half of the 7th century CE, the extent of the Byzantine Empire was greatly reduced by the conquests of the Rashidun Caliphate. It responded with a comprehensive reorganization of its armed forces (659–62) adopting structure and battle tactics that would remain intact until the crushing defeat at... More