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    American Colonies c. 1660

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    Backed by royal mandate, the French made the most impressive early inroads into the North American continent. Quebec was founded in 1608, and Montreal in 1642, while the British and Dutch were still largely huddled along the Atlantic coastline. However, the natural resources of New England and Virginia would, after... More
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    Australia Proposed Divisions 1838

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    In 1835, Britain declared Australia terra nullius, ‘nobody’s land’, thus free for colonization without having to bother with irksome negotiation or treaties with its aboriginal inhabitants. The colonial government, established to control penal colonies, was autocratic, and the vast wilderness attracted ‘squatters’, free settlers, as well as freed and escaped... More
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    Australia Settlements 1829

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    William Bligh, infamous for the mutiny on the Bounty, was appointed fourth Governor of New South Wales (1806): his singular management skills resulted in the only successful armed rebellion in Australian history, and his imprisonment by his own military. Bligh’s successor Lachlan Macquarie (governor 1810–21) restored order, and substantially achieved... More
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    Australia Settlements 1836

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    Van Diemen’s Land became the penal colony of last resort in Australia, where the most hardened criminals and ex-convicts who re-offended were exiled. It also attracted wealthy free settlers, who clustered in the northwest, attracted by the fine sheep pasture and inexhaustible supply of free convict labour. The aboriginal population... More
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    Australia Settlements 1853

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    Within days of Victoria’s proclamation as a separate colony on 1 July 1851, gold was discovered at Ballarat. With the subsequent rushes and economic boom, its population had outstripped that of the mother colony of New South Wales by the end of the decade. The previous year, the Australian Colonies... More
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    Australia Settlements 1859

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    In 1854, the Eureka Rebellion by gold prospectors in Victoria protesting against extortionate taxes and mining licence fees, was ruthlessly suppressed by British troops. However, the British government was shaken from its complacency and reluctantly recognized the need for devolved powers. The Colony of Victoria Act (1855) granted representative government,... More
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    Australia Settlements 1863

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    In 1860–61, the Burke and Wills expedition completed the first crossing of the Australian continent, from Melbourne to the Gulf of Carpentaria. Both the expedition leaders perished on the return trip, emphasizing the hostility of the interior, but the Northern Territory was now on the map, and incorporated into South... More
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    Catholic Empires of the Americas c. 1650

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    The colonization of the new world began with Christopher Columbus’ discovery of Hispaniola in 1492. The Spanish began building an empire in the Caribbean, and conquistadores soon followed, penetrating deep into Central and South America, and south-western North America, and conquering the great indigenous civilisations of Aztec Mexico (1519–21) and... More
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    Central Africa 1884–94

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    The Berlin Conference (1884–85) fired the starting gun for the ‘Scramble for Africa’. Britain was the most ubiquitous, with Cecil Rhodes (‘I would annex planets if I could’) carrying out a concerted land grab from the south, while a network of British protectorates in the north stretched from Egypt to... More
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    Cultural Levels in Central and South America c. 1000 CE

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    The island of Marajo is ‘like a cork in the mouth of the Amazon’ and, in 1000 CE, its Arua inhabitants supported a vibrant urbanized lifestyle from pisciculture, corralling vast catches by damming floodwaters. Across the continent, the Chincha, in coastal Peru, were also fishermen, harvesting anchovy from the sea... More
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    Early Brittany from 300 BCE

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    Julius Caesar incorporated Brittany into the Roman Empire by, but only the southeastern corner would become Romanized (‘-ac’ endings adopted from Roman ‘acum’ = ‘town’). In 383, Magnus Maximus, Roman governor of Britain, brought an army to Brittany in his bid to become emperor. These troops are reported to have... More
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    Eastern Cape 1878

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    The Boer South African Republic (SAR) came into existence in the 1830s, and was recognized by the British in 1852. At the same time, the British forced independence on Orange Free State (most settlers there preferred to remain a colony). Zoutpansberg and Lydenburg briefly seceded from the SAR, before reincorporation... More
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