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Standard Time Zones 1883
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Standard Time Zones 1883

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Greenwich Mean Time was introduced in 1675, in conjunction with the opening of the Royal Observatory, but it was introduced as a navigational aid for mariners, not to govern timekeeping practice, which remained highly localized. The development of railway travel accelerated the need for standardization; the accelerated pace of travel... More
The Celts in Europe from 800 BCE
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The Celts in Europe from 800 BCE

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The Celts, named Keltoi (barbarians) by the Greeks, were a cultural group that occupied much of Europe north of the Alps. The proto-Celtic Urnfield Culture was located in central Europe until the 8th century BCE, when the first recognizably Celtic Hallstatt culture began to disseminate from a heartland in southern... More
The English Hold on Ireland c. 1400
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The English Hold on Ireland c. 1400

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Anglo-Norman power in Ireland was consolidated by the Great Charter (1217), derived from Magna Carta, and reached its zenith in the elective Parliament of 1297. Formed originally of the Norman nobility, knights and clergy, town burghers were added in 1299. Thereafter Scots invasion, famines, and the ravages of the Black... More
The Known World according to Eratosthenes c. 220 BCE
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The Known World according to Eratosthenes c. 220 BCE

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Eratosthenes was born in Cyrene (present-day Libya) under Ptolemaic rule in c. 276 BCE. He became a renowned polymath, devising a mathematical sieve for determining prime numbers, and deducing with reasonable accuracy the circumference of the earth through latitudinal differences in shadow-length at noon. His mathematical bent influenced his Geography,... More
TheExpansion of Florence 1300–1494
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TheExpansion of Florence 1300–1494

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Florence (Firenze) became the capital and main cultural centre of Italy’s Tuscany region in the 11th century, and grew into an internationally important commercial hub. In 1252 it introduced its own gold coins, ‘fiorini d’oro’ or ‘florins’, which spread throughout western Europe as the principal trading currency. Control of the... More