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    Development of Agriculture in Africa 4500–500 BCE

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    Development of Agriculture in Africa 4500–500 BCE

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    From about 10,500 BCE the arid post-Ice Age Sahara was slowly transformed by increased rainfall; by 3500 BCE the Sahara Desert was a fertile steppe, covered in grass and woodland. Lake Chad was created by rivers, which cascaded from surrounding mountains. The fertile soil made northern and eastern Africa one... More
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    Dispersion of Soviet Industry 1941–42

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    Dispersion of Soviet Industry 1941–42

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    When Germany began its invasion of the Soviet Union with Operation Barbarossa in June 1941, the Soviet command was caught off guard by the speed of the German advance. Key industrial and agricultural regions around Russia’s two major cities, Moscow and Leningrad, and in the Ukraine came under imminent threat... More
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    Economy and Population 1200–1400

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    Economy and Population 1200–1400

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    Throughout the High Middle Ages, the British population was overwhelmingly agricultural. At the outset, that population was organized within the feudal manorial system, with villeins (freeholders) and cottars (tenants) contributing a proportion of their produce to both the feudal magnate and the clergy. Over the period, the number of freemen... More
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    Edgar Thomson Steel Works 1873

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    Edgar Thomson Steel Works 1873

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    Andrew Carnegie was the epitome of the American rags-to-riches dream. Arriving in America at 13, the son of a migrant Scottish handloom weaver, by his late 30s he had already amassed a fortune from oil and railroads, before deciding to move into the steel industry. His first plant was named... More
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    Grange Railroads 1890

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    Grange Railroads 1890

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    The Granger movement was initiated by Oliver Hudson Kelley, an official of the Department of Agriculture, in 1867. Its founding body, the Patrons of Husbandry (the Grange), was dedicated to modernizing farming practice. From its origins in the Midwest, the movement spread across the country, reaching a peak membership of... More
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    Hopeton Plantation, Georgia

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    Hopeton Plantation, Georgia

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    William Hopeton received 2,000 acres of land abutting the Altamaha River as a colonial grant in 1763. In 1805, the land was purchased by two Scots cotton planters, James Hamilton and John Couper, and in 1818, the son of the latter, James Hamilton Couper became the estate manager. Under his... More
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    Industries 1901

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    Industries 1901

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    In 1901, Britain led the world in manufacturing and industry after great expansion and developments during the 19th century. There was an increase in international trade, export successes across the Empire and a new demand for consumer goods from the growing middle-classes. The coal, iron, steel and engineering industries created... More
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    Industry by 1920

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    Industry by 1920

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    Henry Ford was the archetypal American industrial mogul and inventor of mass production; at his Ford Motor Company (founded in 1903) ‘The chain never stops, the pace never varies. The man is part of the chain, the feeder and slave of it’. Between 1890 and 1920, America transformed from a... More
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    Industry c. 1800

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    Industry c. 1800

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    In 1800, British trade was still governed by mercantilist principles, expressed by Navigation Acts that reserved the shipping of British goods to British vessels, and imposed swingeing duties on foreign imports. The free trade advanced by Adam Smith in his Wealth of Nations (1776) would not prevail until the mid-19th... More
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    Industry in Britain 1715–1815

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    Industry in Britain 1715–1815

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    Coalbrookdale in Shropshire was the Industrial Revolution’s ‘Silicon Valley’, with Abraham Darby I, II and III, the tech titans of their day. The first Abraham pioneered the use of coal in iron-smelting, and the industrial use of Newcomen’s steam engine. The third Abraham constructed (from cast-iron) the revolutionary Iron Bridge.... More
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    Irish Economy to 1841

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    Irish Economy to 1841

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    The Napoleonic Wars (1793–1815) created boom conditions. Insulated from the continent-wide conflict, Ireland’s agricultural sector, which exported meat and increasingly grain, benefited from escalating food prices. Landowners converted pasture to tillage to become Britain’s ‘bread-basket’, using ‘cottier’ tenant farmers and ‘conacre’ labourers, who subsisted on high-yield potato crops on progressively... More
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    Irish Pre-Famine Economy 1821–41

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    Irish Pre-Famine Economy 1821–41

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    After a boom during the Napoleonic Wars, Ireland’s manufacturing industries stagnated after the Act of Union (1801). Karl Marx (in the 1860s) described Ireland as ‘an agricultural district of England (to which) it yields corn, wool, cattle, industrial and military recruits’. Nevertheless, in the 1841 census, a third of the... More
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