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    Europe in 1453

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    Europe in 1453

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    The French victory at Castillon (1453) ended the Hundred Years’ War, leaving the defeated English with just the port of Calais as a toehold on the European mainland. In the same year, the long Byzantine resistance to the Ottomans was finally ended with the capture of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmet... More
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    Europe in 1800

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    Europe in 1800

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    The elective monarchies of central Europe appeared increasingly quaint when set against the ruthless Realpolitik of ‘enlightened’ despots such as Catherine the Great of Russia, and Frederick the Great of Prussia. Poland was partitioned out of existence (1772–95), while the millennium-long survival of the Holy Roman Empire and the Venetian... More
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    Europe in 1871

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    Europe in 1871

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    The Franco-Prussian war resulted in two reunifications. In the run-up, French troops were withdrawn from Rome and the Papal states enabling completion of the Italian Risorgimento; a crushing Prussian victory saw the proclamation of the German Empire in the war’s aftermath. Earlier in the decade, Italy had also profited from... More
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    Europe in 1900

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    Europe in 1900

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    Prussian military victories over Austria (1866) and France (1871) reshaped the map of central Europe, spurring the formation of Austro-Hungarian Empire (1867), and the conversion of the German Confederation into an Empire dominated by Prussia and their guileful Chancellor, Bismarck. With Germany and Italy each achieving unification in 1871, the... More
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    Europe June 1812

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    Europe June 1812

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    On the eve of his invasion of Russia, Napoleon was notionally at the height of his power, presiding over an empire of 130 departements and 70 million people, but ominous cracks were already appearing in his imperium. From 1811, France experienced a prolonged economic crisis exacerbated by Britain’s economic blockade,... More
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    Expansion of Persia 612–493 BCE

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    Expansion of Persia 612–493 BCE

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    The chain of events leading to the formation of the Persian Empire can be traced to the collapse of Assyrian power at the end of the 7th century BCE. The Medes were major territorial beneficiaries and, after extending their sway through northern Persia and eastern Anatolia, in around 550 BCE... More
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    Expansion of Russia 1598-1914

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    Expansion of Russia 1598-1914

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    Russian conquests in central Asia were a piecemeal affair, with frequent diversions to more pressing European entanglements. Subduing the Caucasus took a century (1763–1864), and was finally achieved only by forcibly expelling the rebellious Circassians from their mountain strongholds. These campaigns provoked repeated wars with Persia (1804–13, 1826–28). East of... More
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    Expansion of Russia: 1530–1618

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    Expansion of Russia: 1530–1618

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    The reign of Ivan IV ‘the Terrible’ (1547–84) was marked by great vicissitudes, often exacerbated by his own violent temperament. He brought about great expansion of the empire, with the subjugation of the khanates of Astrakhan, Kazan and Sibir. This took his rule south to the Caucasus and deep into... More
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    Expansion of the Qin 316–209 BCE

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    Expansion of the Qin 316–209 BCE

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    During the ‘Warring States’ period in China (476–221 BCE), a number of kingdoms vied for supremacy. The Qin ruled a relatively modest fiefdom on the western periphery. In the mid 4th century BCE, the statesman Shang Yang established strong centralized rule, and founded their new capital, Xianyang. After the expansionist... More
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    Fall of Croesus 550 BCE

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    Fall of Croesus 550 BCE

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    The extreme wealth of Croesus was reputed to derive from the gold deposits of the River Pactolus, where according to legend, the accursed Midas had tried to wash away his ‘golden touch’. But Croesus’s overlordship of Lydia, and tribute from the wealthy Ionian cities of the coast of Asia Minor,... More
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    Fatimid Empire and other Islamic states c. 1000

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    Fatimid Empire and other Islamic states c. 1000

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    By the millennium, the Islamic world was prey to an array of centrifugal forces. At its core, the Abbasid caliphate had been reduced to a largely symbolic function by the Buwayhid emirate. In its turn the Buwayhids had passed their peak, and were increasingly threatened by internal dissent, and the... More
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    French Empire 1810

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    French Empire 1810

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    By feats of arms, Napoleon Bonaparte had forged a prototype European Union by 1810. His coronation as French Emperor (1804) portrayed him as heir of Charlemagne, but Napoleon’s imperial model was Roman not Holy Roman. As decisive a reformer as he was a general, he liberalized the legal code, respected... More
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