Conquest

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The Persian Empire 550–330 BCE
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The Persian Empire 550–330 BCE

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Astyages, king of Media, was the dominant power in the Middle East when he moved to crush a rebellion in Persia, led by his grandson Cyrus. Cyrus triumphed at the Battle of Pasargadae, going on the capture the Median capital Ecbatana (550 BCE). Now in control of a substantial empire,... More
The Rashidun Caliphate at the death of Uthman 656
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The Rashidun Caliphate at the death of Uthman 656

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The Rashidun (‘Rightly Guided’) were five close companions of the prophet Muhammad who were, successively, caliphs during the expansion of the Islamic Empire (632–61). The empire dissolved into civil war with the assassination of Caliph Uthman (656–61 (the ‘first Fitna’) and again with the death of the first Umayyad caliph,... More
The Theban Monarchy c. 1524–1514 BCE
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The Theban Monarchy c. 1524–1514 BCE

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Only decades after facing near annihilation from the depredations of the Hyksos from the north and the Kushites from the south, the first two rulers of the 18th Dynasty accomplished a stunning turnaround. Kamose, the founder, in a brief reign drove the Hyksos back into their Nile delta strongholds and... More
The Treaties of Roskilde, Copenhagen, Oliva and Kardis 1658–61
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The Treaties of Roskilde, Copenhagen, Oliva and Kardis 1658–61

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The martial King Charles X was appointed commander of Swedish forces in the Thirty Years’ War, just months before the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) was agreed, snuffing out his hopes of glory. He ascended the Swedish throne in 1654, impatient for conquest, and soon declared war on the Polish/Lithuanian commonwealth,... More
The Umayyad Caliphate by 750
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The Umayyad Caliphate by 750

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The first of the four major caliphates established after the death of Muhammad was the Rashidun (632–61), which was characterized by a period of rapid military expansion in the Middle East and North Africa, followed by a five-year period of civil war between the Caliph Ali, Muhammad’s son-in-law, and Muawiyah,... More
The Viking Attempt to Seize the English Throne 1066
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The Viking Attempt to Seize the English Throne 1066

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The death of Edward the Confessor ignited a battle of succession for the English throne. While Harold Godwinson had been elected king by the assembly of nobles, his younger brother Tostig had enlisted Harald Hardrada, king of Norway, to support his counterclaim. Sailing up the River Ouse, the Norse invaders... More
The Visigoth and Vandal Kingdoms, 419–555
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The Visigoth and Vandal Kingdoms, 419–555

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After the Western Roman Empire fell at the beginning of the 5th century, a period of fluctuating migration and warring between tribes in the former Roman lands began. The Vandals, who originated in Scandinavia, were pushed into North Africa by an alliance of Romans and Visigoths after a reign of... More
Viking Attack on Paris 885–889
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Viking Attack on Paris 885–889

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After plundering Flanders, the Vikings entered the kingdom of the West Franks in 885 and laid siege to the Seine, in the Paris basin. They sailed hundreds of ships, carrying thousands of Viking warriors to the fortifications around Paris. Duke Odo of Francia, who controlled the city, refused to pay... More
Viking Scotland 800–1014
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Viking Scotland 800–1014

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Following the Viking attack on the holy island of Lindisfarne in 793, the Vikings raided the mother abbey of Iona in the Hebrides, within the Gaelic kingdom of Dalriada, just a year later. The Picts was unable to come to Iona’s aid and the Vikings raided again and again. The... More
Wales and the March 1267
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Wales and the March 1267

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After Llewellyn ap Gruffud (‘the Last’), prince of Wales, was killed near Builth (1282), Edward I had his head crowned with ivy and hung from the Tower of London, in mocking fulfilment of a Druidic prophecy that a Welshman would be crowned in London as king of Britain. Forty years... More
War in China July 1937 – December 1944
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War in China July 1937 – December 1944

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Ever since the Japanese invasion of Manchuria in 1931, Sino-Japanese relations had been uneasy, resulting in several military exchanges, and culminating in a failed attempt by the Japanese on 8 July 1937 to take control of the Lugou or ‘Marco Polo’ Bridge near Beijing. Major battles followed, in which the... More
Welsh Castles 1276–1283
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Welsh Castles 1276–1283

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In 1276, Edward I of England began a campaign against Gwynedd after Llywelyn, prince of Wales, refused to pay homage. Edward’s army marched towards Gwynedd in 1277 and quickly subdued its Welsh vassals as many were unhappy under Llywellyn’s rule. Llywelyn was forced to sign away lands to become English... More