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France 1791
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France 1791

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The Constituent National Assembly introduced the départements in 1790 as a perfect expression of Revolutionary iconoclasm and rationalism. The old provinces were intentionally eliminated in both name and form. Their accretion of historical happenstance, accumulated privileges and ‘customary law’ jurisdictions had epitomized the defects of the Ancien Régime and was... More
French Guinea 1990
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French Guinea 1990

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The mineral-rich colony of French Guinea (part of French West Africa) was made independent in 1958 under the leadership of President Ahmed Sékou Touré. Touré severed all links with France and turned Guinea into a Marxist republic and, until the military coup in 1984, Guinea was run as a dictatorship.... More
House of Representatives passes Civil Rights Act 1964
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House of Representatives passes Civil Rights Act 1964

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The Civil Rights Act (1964) outlawed discrimination based on race, religion, colour, sex or national origin in the United States. Incoming President Johnson used the assassination of his predecessor in its advocacy: ‘no memorial oration… could more eloquently honour President Kennedy’s memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil... More
India: Religions c. 1950
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India: Religions c. 1950

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At the 1947 partition, roughly 25 per cent of the population of the Indian subcontinent was Muslim, forming a majority in territories that would become Pakistan, but with large minority populations throughout the western half of the Indian subcontinent. Other minorities, including Christians, Buddhists, Jains and Sikhs, comprised some 5... More
Land Use in the Russian Federation 1991
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Land Use in the Russian Federation 1991

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In 1991, the USSR announced the independence of its former republics. After 1991, the privatized farms could not afford fertilizers or new machinery, causing yields to drop. Up to 1991, the Soviet Union was the world’s second leading power; yet despite its state-owned farming collectives yielding vast quantities of grain,... More
Latin America 1892
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Latin America 1892

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Following the dismemberment of the Spanish Empire, Latin America remained highly unstable, with a succession of Caudillos, military strongmen, seizing power and waging war. Some of these wars were brutal: Paraguay lost up to half its population in conflict with Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina (1864–70); Bolivia lost its access to... More
Monarchy in the World
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Monarchy in the World

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Monarchy describes a system of government in which the sovereign rules by order of succession, usually hereditary. Since the 19th century, the growth of parliamentary authority and the rise of communism has steadily extinguished hereditary monarchies; between 2010 and the present, there were only 43 monarchies in the world. Half... More
Post-Apartheid South Africa 1994–95
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Post-Apartheid South Africa 1994–95

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The period between Nelson Mandela’s release from 27 years in prison in 1990 and South Africa’s first post-apartheid elections in 1994 was extremely fraught. Afrikaner hard-liners were determined to derail the process of apartheid repeal, but there was also dissension amongst the various representatives of the black majority. In particular... More
Russian Industry Under Peter the Great 1689–1725
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Russian Industry Under Peter the Great 1689–1725

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Much of Peter the Great’s inspiration for the sweeping reforms he would make in Russia came from his visit to western Europe in 1697 during the Grand Embassy. Although the mission’s original aim, to secure diplomatic backing against the Ottomans, failed, it provided the tsar with invaluable first-hand experience of... More
Russian Regions and Provinces c. 1860
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Russian Regions and Provinces c. 1860

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Russian armies of serf conscripts were outfought by their Western opponents in the Crimean War (1853–56). This, combined with the spiralling rural unrest the demands of war had triggered, led Emperor Alexander II to embark an ambitious programme of reform (1861–65), beginning with the emancipation of serfs. Zemstva, a basic... More
Serf Population Growth c. 1865
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Serf Population Growth c. 1865

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Tsar Alexander I’s revolutionary abolition of serfdom in 1861 was a major step in modernizing Russian society, which was severely lagging behind its western European counterparts in many respects. The Crimean War in particular had highlighted the shortcomings of Russia’s military, which was comprised mainly of serfs, so Alexander set... More
Soviet Industrialization 1931–36
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Soviet Industrialization 1931–36

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In 1931, Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, determined that Russia would not continue as a ‘backwards’ agrarian country, had already implemented his first Five Year Plan. This set draconian targets for the expansion of Russia’s coal, steel, oil and gas industries, with emphasis on Ukraine, the Volga... More