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    Central Europe 1815–70

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    Central Europe 1815–70

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    In March 1815, at the Congress of Vienna, Great Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia formed the ‘Seventh Coalition’ determined to end the European rule of Napoleon, whom they declared ‘an outlaw’. Upon his return from exile on the island of Elba, Napoleon reassembled an army and successfully fought various minor... More
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    Central Europe 1993

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    Central Europe 1993

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    The early 1990s saw a series of fundamental political changes in Europe as the both the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia dissolved and a number of new independent democracies came into being. On 1 January 1993 the federal state of Czechoslovakia split into two separate states, the Czech Republic and Slovakia.... More
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    Contenders for the West to 1820

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    Contenders for the West to 1820

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    Despite a surprising victory in their War of Independence, the new United States appeared to be unlikely candidates for future continental dominance in 1783. Most of North America was still wilderness, and under claim by the major European powers of the day, Britain, France and Spain. But Europe was soon... More
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    Cyprus 1960–74

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    Cyprus 1960–74

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    In 1878 the Ottoman Turks ceded Cyprus to the British Empire, which annexed the island in 1925. The majority of the population was made up of Greek Cypriots, who desired enosis (union with Greece), which the Turkish Cypriots rejected. After three decades of unrest, Cyprus gained its independence from Britain... More
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    Decolonization 1950–97

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    Decolonization 1950–97

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    A frequent catalyst for independence movements is the disruption to colonial rule occasioned by protracted conflict. The Napoleonic War was effectively the death-knell for the bulk of Spain’s South American empire; World War I completed Ottoman disintegration. Although France and Britain emerged on the winning side in World War II,... More
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    Decolonization 1951–75

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    Decolonization 1951–75

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    Following World War II, people across Europe and Africa began to question the morality of the European colonies created during the scramble for Africa in the latter 19th century. It had become increasingly obvious that the colonies were exploitative in nature. The Atlantic Charter, signed by the Allies in 1941,... More
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    Devolution 2010

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    Devolution 2010

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    In March 2010, eleven years after devolution in 1999, the Parliament of the United Kingdom made an agreement to transfer powers to assemblies in Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales. Main powers devolved included agriculture, education, environment and health. The United Kingdom government still retained control of defence and national security,... More
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    Eastern France 1643–1715

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    Eastern France 1643–1715

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    Following the Thirty Years’ War, and the pivotal French victory against the Spanish at Rocroi (1643), France’s military reputation was secured, and the period of French hegemony in Europe, under the rule of Louis XIV, began. France initially looked eastward, as a means of facilitating contact with her German allies,... More
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    Europe 1500

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    Europe 1500

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    While the Renaissance reached a crescendo in its Italian heartland, the balance of political power shifted towards the continental periphery. In the east, the fall of Constantinople (1453) opened the path for Ottoman conquest of the Balkans. To the north, Ivan the Great of Muscovy managed to throw off the... More
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    Europe 1600

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    Europe 1600

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    In the late 16th century, elective monarchy appeared an increasingly successful model for governance. In the Poland-Lithuania Commonwealth, the enshrinement of the powers of the nobility in the Golden Liberty (1573) ushered in a period of unparalleled prosperity and political power. The newly independent Netherlands under their Stadtholders rapidly became... More
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    Europe 1648

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    Europe 1648

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    1648 saw the end of the devastating Thirty Years’ War through the treaties of Osnabrück and Münster, collectively known as the Treaty of Westphalia. The Eighty Years’ War (or ‘Dutch Revolt’) and the Spanish-Habsburg quest for dominance in the Netherlands also came to a halt, with Spain finally recognizing Dutch... More
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    Europe 1700

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    Europe 1700

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    The turn of the 17th century was sandwiched between the Great Turkish War (1683–97), which effectively ended Ottoman expansion into Europe, and the Great Northern War (1700–21), through which Russia wrested control of the Baltic from Sweden, and effectively replaced the Ottomans as Europe’s threat to the east. The nightmare... More
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