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  • The Unification of Germany 1871

    The Unification of Germany 1871

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    The Unification of Germany 1871

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    On 18 January 1871, following decades of political turmoil and conflict, the states that comprised Germany were finally united under the leadership of Prussia, marking a significant milestone in the country's history. The unification process was primarily driven by Otto von Bismarck, the Chancellor of Prussia, who utilised military force... More
  • United States 1840

    The United States 1840

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    The United States 1840

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    The state of Arkansas was admitted as the 25th state in 1836. The forced removal of the Five Civilized Tribes of Indians from the eastern homelands was then at its height, and the main routes of the ‘Trail of Tears’ ran through the new state to the designated resettlement zones... More
  • United States 1850

    The United States 1850

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    The United States 1850

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    In a busy decade, the northern borders with British territory were resolved by the Webster-Ashburton and Oregon Treaties (1842, 1846), and the Union was expanded by the admission of Florida, and the (consensual) annexation of Texas in 1845. A jingoistic war with Mexico followed over disputed borders. Decisive American victory... More
  • United States 1860

    The United States 1860

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    The United States 1860

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    Even as the Union began to realize its ‘manifest destiny’ of dominion ‘from sea to shining sea’, internal contradictions began to threaten disintegration. The Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) abolished the slavery ‘line of demarcation’ proposed by the Missouri Compromise (1830), making the position on slavery in new states a decision for... More
  • United States 1870

    The United States 1870

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    The United States 1870

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    With the secession of the Southern States in 1861, the Union was shattered, and 600,000 lives would be lost in four years of civil war. Yet the process of territorial evolution did not cease. Kansas was admitted as a free state (1861) shortly before the outbreak of war, while West... More
  • United States 1880

    The United States 1880

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    The United States 1880

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    On paper, the United States was relatively quiescent in the 1870s: the only territorial acquisitions were the Juan de Fuca Islands in the northwest (1872) in settlement of a long-running dispute with Canada, the only new state Colorado (admitted in 1876). But the decade saw the pacification of the frontier... More
  • United States 1900

    The United States 1900

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    The United States 1900

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    Between 1889 and 1893, a series of ‘land runs’ resulted from opening up former Indian reservation land in western Oklahoma to settlers. In 1890, the US Census Bureau formally declared the American Frontier closed, based on the spread of settlement throughout the West. A cluster of state admissions reflected the... More
  • United States 1920

    The United States 1920

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    The United States 1920

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    The Mexican Revolution (1910–20) produced protracted upheaval along the American border. Streams of refugees fled the fighting, and rebels used the American Southwest desert as their bolthole. The instability helped to prompt admission of Arizona and New Mexico to the Union (1912). Their incorporation did not prevent a series of... More

  • The US Civil Rights Act 1964

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    The US Civil Rights Act 1964

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    Future Presidents Kennedy and Johnson opposed the Civil Rights Act of 1957, but the findings of the Commission created by that Act graphically anatomized the pervasiveness of discrimination in American society, and the perniciousness of its effects, promoting a sea-change in public opinion. When Kennedy was assassinated, his successor, President... More

  • The US Equal Rights Amendment 1972–1978

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    The US Equal Rights Amendment 1972–1978

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    The US Congress passed the Equal Rights Amendment on 22 March 1972 (‘Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex’). There was a seven-year deadline on the ratification process, with approval of three-fourths (38)... More

  • The Virgin Lands 1960–70

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    The Virgin Lands 1960–70

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    In 1953, the new Soviet leader, Nikita Khrushchev, began the Virgin Lands campaign to cultivate the steppe lands, mainly in northern Kazakhstan, for grain production. This area was chosen because it had higher rainfall and better soil than neighbouring regions, as well as a low population. The campaign was successful... More

  • The Vote for Business 1896

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    The Vote for Business 1896

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    The 1896 presidential election ended in the Republican victory of William McKinley against Democrat, William Jennings Bryan. McKinley was the first American president to use modern campaign techniques, spending $3.5 million on his bid for the presidency, five times the Bryan campaign sum. The central issue was whether to take... More
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