Fortifications

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Danebury Celtic Hillfort c. 6th century BCE
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Danebury Celtic Hillfort c. 6th century BCE

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Danebury is an Iron Age hillfort in Hampshire, England, which was extensively excavated by Barry Cunliffe in the 1970s. When first occupied, around 550 BCE, it was guarded by a single rampart-and-ditch ring but, over time, extra layers of defence were added, with the ramparts mounted by first wood, then... More

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Iron Age Roundhouse Isle of Man 400 CE
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Iron Age Roundhouse Isle of Man 400 CE

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The Iron Age on the Isle of Man began around 500 BCE, and – as there was no Roman colonization – extended until c. 500 CE. While the Romans did not invade, the archaeological evidence suggests that marauding from Celtic neighbours was common. Man’s coastline is dotted with promontory forts,... More

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Major Surviving Castles in Japan
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Major Surviving Castles in Japan

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The Meiji Restoration, which restored imperial rule to Japan in 1868, precipitated an intense drive for modernization that resulted in the destruction of many of Japan’s castles, seen as unwelcome reminders of the country’s prolonged state of feudalism. More were destroyed during World War II by targeted American bombing. Barely... More

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Manching Oppidum 300 BCE
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Manching Oppidum 300 BCE

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The location of the oppidum (fortified settlement) of Manching was chosen primarily for commerce. At the juncture of the Paar and Danube rivers, and major overland trade routes, it was also blessed with rich local deposits of iron ore and gold. A massive post-slot wall of stone and timber 4.4... More

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Marienburg Castle 1450
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Marienburg Castle 1450

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Construction of Marienburg Castle, also known as Malbork Castle, began in 1276 to serve as a stronghold for the Order of the Teutonic Knights. Originally engaging in conquests to bring Christianity to the pagan peoples of eastern Europe, the order established their own kingdom in 1283. The castle complex was... More

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Settlement in the Lordship of Meath c. 1200
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Settlement in the Lordship of Meath c. 1200

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Hugh de Lacy was a substantial landholder in the Welsh Marches when he accompanied Henry II on his invasion of Ireland (1171). The following year, he was deputed to receive the submission of Rory O’ Connor, the High King of Ireland to Henry and, mission accomplished, was rewarded with the... More

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The Danelaw c. 912
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The Danelaw c. 912

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By the 8th century the four main Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were Mercia, Wessex, East Anglia and Northumbria. But in the 9th century sporadic Viking raiders began to arrive from the north and the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms faced a huge upheaval. After a period of In 865 the Danes mounted a full-scale invasion,... More

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The Defences of Egypt c. 1500 BCE
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The Defences of Egypt c. 1500 BCE

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Pharaoh Senusret III (1878–1839 BCE) was venerated as a god in the Semna region on the Nubian borders, out of awe for the scale of his building projects. He erected massive twin fortresses at Semna and Kumma on opposite banks of the Nile. To reinforce Egypt’s defences against Nubian or... More

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Tintagel Castle 330–1330 CE
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Tintagel Castle 330–1330 CE

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A milestone discovered at Tintagel in Cornwall refers to the Emperor Licinius (r. 308–324) suggesting that it was occupied during the Roman era; there are also traces of earlier Bronze Age/Iron Age habitation. Archaeological remains from the 5th and 6th centuries, including pottery sourced from the Mediterranean, suggest a high-status... More

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