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Showing 85–96 of 191 results

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    Peloponnesian War 431–404 BCE

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    Peloponnesian War 431–404 BCE

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    In order to dominate the trade routes with southern Italy and Sicily, Athens backed Corcyra in a dispute with Corinth. Corinth enlisted Sparta’s help against Athens, and supported a Thessalian city-state revolt against Athens (432 BCE). Athens’ leader, Pericles, isolated Corinth by refusing to trade with Megara, a Spartan ally.... More
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    Poland 1618

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    Poland 1618

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    The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1618 was one of the largest, most populous countries in Europe. It had an elective monarchy and was run by nobility who avoided becoming embroiled in the destructive Thirty Years’ War, which ranged Protestants against Roman Catholics and was beginning to devastate the Holy Roman Empire... More
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    Poland 1648

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    Poland 1648

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    1648 marked the beginning of the ‘Deluge’ (c. 1648–60), a ruinous phase of uprisings and wars. It began with the Zaporogian Cossack independence struggle against the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1648–55, supported by Tatars of the Crimean Khanate and disparate disaffected elements within the region, including the peasants. The rebellion resulted... More
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    Poland c. 1680

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    Poland c. 1680

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    In 1672–76, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth lost control of Podolia (in modern Ukraine) to the Turkish Ottoman Empire. In 1683, after the Ottomans seized Vienna in Austria, the Commonwealth joined forces with the Austrian-led Holy Roman Empire to form a ‘Christian Coalition’ against the Islamic ‘threat’. The Polish king, John III... More
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    Poland c. 1700

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    Poland c. 1700

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    Augustus II, Elector of Saxony, converted to Roman Catholicism in order to succeed to the Polish throne after King John III Sobieski’s death in 1696. His rival, François Louis, prince of Conti, procured more votes, so there was some question over the legality of Augustus’s title. Conti disappeared to France,... More
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    Pontiac’s Rebellion 1763–64

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    Pontiac’s Rebellion 1763–64

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    A confederation of Native American warriors, led by the Ottawa chief Pontiac, launched an assault on the British garrison at Detroit in April 1763. The Native Americans were angered by the harsh British treatment of them after the British victory in the French and Indian War (1754–63). Their intention was... More
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    Post Colonial Wars 1948–89

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    Post Colonial Wars 1948–89

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    After achieving independence, many African states experienced various forms of armed conflict, which served to hold back economic and social development across the continent. The legacy of the old colonial borders is believed to have played an important role in this widespread conflict as they were drawn by the European... More
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    Pre-Roman Gaul

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    Pre-Roman Gaul

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    Julius Caesar discerned three broad divisions amongst the inhabitants of Gaul. The Belgae of the north were similar to, but wilder than, the Celtae of the centre, while the Aquitani tribes of the Southwest were entirely distinct in appearance and customs. Prior to Caesar’s conquest, most of the southern littoral... More
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    Queen Anne’s War 1702–13 & The War of Jenkins Ear 1739–42

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    Queen Anne’s War 1702–13 & The War of Jenkins Ear 1739–42

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    Queen Anne’s War, a British victory, was fought between Great Britain and France, joined by its Spanish allies. Each side allied themselves to Indian nations, with the British supported by the Iroquois and the French-Spanish, the Abenakis. This war was contemporaneous with the War of the Spanish Succession in Europe,... More
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    Red River War 1874–75

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    Red River War 1874–75

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    The Medicine Lodge Treaty (1867) allocated Cheyenne, Kiowa, Comanche and Arapaho reservations east of the Texas Panhandle, but the industrial-scale extermination of bison by commercial hunters soon threatened them with starvation. Incited by a spiritual leader who claimed he could make them bullet-proof and invisible, some 300 Indians attacked the... More
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    Renaissance Italy c. 1500

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    Renaissance Italy c. 1500

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    The early-mid 15th century saw a steady consolidation of the medieval city-states of northern Italy. In 1454, three of the most powerful states, Milan, Florence and Naples settled their territorial differences at the Peace of Lodi. There was calm until the 1490s, when Ludovico Sforza invited the armies of France,... More
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    Rise of Austria and Brandenburg-Prussia 1640–99

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    Rise of Austria and Brandenburg-Prussia 1640–99

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    When Leopold I became heir apparent to the Habsburg lands his father, Ferdinand III, made him king of Hungary (1655) and Bohemia (1656). Upon his father’s death, he inherited Austria and, despite opposition from France, became Holy Roman Emperor in 1658. Habsburg power was consolidated in central and eastern Europe,... More
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