Warfare

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The Soviet Liberation of the Ukraine and Crimea January–May 1944
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The Soviet Liberation of the Ukraine and Crimea January–May 1944

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Having reached Kiev and the eastern bank of the River Dnieper by November 1943, the Soviet army continued its advance westwards along five fronts, completely destroying 18 Wehrmacht and Romanian divisions and inflicting heavy casualties. It is estimated that over 6 million ethnic Ukrainians fought alongside the Russians, helped by... More
The Spanish Civil War: Offensive in the North March–June 1937
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The Spanish Civil War: Offensive in the North March–June 1937

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In March 1937 General Franco decided to halt his stalling assault on Madrid and redirect his efforts to the Republican-held territory on the Bay of Biscay, containing the city of Bilbao, Spain’s main industrial centre. The Nationalist offensive was led by General Mola and supported by indiscriminate German and Italian... More
The Spanish–American War 1898
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The Spanish–American War 1898

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In 1895 Spanish colonial authorities suppressed an invasion by Cuban liberationists, but a guerrilla insurgency continued, threatening US business interests in Cuban tobacco and sugar. The USS Maine was sent to Havana Harbour to safeguard American citizens on the island. In February 1898, it sank after a massive explosion. The... More
The Struggle for Empire 1754–63
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The Struggle for Empire 1754–63

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In 1754, Britain attempted to occupy French territory west of the thirteen colonies in a desire to expand its colonial settlements to generate more raw materials for trade. This antagonized the French who kept several trading posts there. The French also had colonies in the midwest, Louisiana and eastern Canada.... More
The Taman Offensive 9 September–9 October 1943
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The Taman Offensive 9 September–9 October 1943

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Before the German 17th Army could proceed with its authorized retreat from the Taman Peninsula, the Soviet North Caucasus Front launched a surprise attack on the heavily embedded German defences. The offensive began on 9 September with a small deployment of troops from the Black Sea who landed in Novorossiysk.... More
The Third Battle of Artois 25 September–8 October 1915
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The Third Battle of Artois 25 September–8 October 1915

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In May 1915, the French 10th Army managed to reach the top of Vimy Ridge, a strategic position commanding the approaches to the coal-mining centres of Lens and Loos, but were driven off by ferocious German bombardment. In September, General Foch determined to try again while also commanding a new... More
The Third Crusade 1189–92
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The Third Crusade 1189–92

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The Third Crusade was Christian Europe’s response to Saladin’s re-conquest of Jerusalem. First to take up the cause was Frederick Barbarossa, the veteran Holy Roman Emperor who set off overland with a huge army. Richard I of England, and Philip II of France rendezvoused in Sicily, before sailing separately for... More
The Thirty Years’ War 1618–29
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The Thirty Years’ War 1618–29

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The Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II provoked this terrible conflict in Central Europe by attempting, as King of Bohemia, to impose Catholicism within his dominions, triggering the ‘defenestration of Prague’ (1618), when his representatives were thrown out of the windows of Prague Castle. His outraged subjects offered his crown to... More
The Thirty Years’ War 1630–39
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The Thirty Years’ War 1630–39

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The eminence grise of the Protestant cause was, ironically, a Catholic cardinal: Richelieu of France, determined to frustrate the Habsburgs. He had bankrolled Denmark’s disastrous intervention; in 1630, he backed a winner in Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. The Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand II had sacked his most successful military leader,... More
The Thirty Years’ War 1640–48
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The Thirty Years’ War 1640–48

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The siege of Arras (1640) was a turning point in the prolonged conflict; after capturing Arras, the French surged into Flanders, routing the Spanish at Rocroi (1643) and in the Netherlands, (Gent, Hulst, Dunkirk). The tide turned for the French in Germany, with defeats at Tutlingen and Herbsthausen. However, their... More
The Treaty of Lodi 1454
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The Treaty of Lodi 1454

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From the late 14th century, the city states of northern Italy were engaged in near continuous warfare triggered by the expansionism of the Visconti dynasty in Milan. Pitted against Milan was Florence, but, as the conflict evolved, Venice exploited the disruption by systematically extending its territories westward, initially as the... More
The Trentino Offensive May–June 1916
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The Trentino Offensive May–June 1916

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The Trentino offensive was a major action, the Austro-Hungarian High Command assembling 18 divisions for the task, aiming to strike directly at the Italian heartland via the Asiago plateau, thereby isolating the Italian armies around Isonzo. Although pre-warned of the military build-up, the local Italian commander, General Brusati, was insufficiently... More