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The Holy League 1571
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The Holy League 1571

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The Sack of Rome in 1527 by mutinous troops of the Holy Roman Empire forced the pope to reach an accommodation with the Spanish Habsburgs. Emperor Charles V faced Europe-wide criticism for his army’s actions and left the papal states intact and guaranteed Medici rule over Florence. The papal states... More
The Hundred Years’ War 1337–1453
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The Hundred Years’ War 1337–1453

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England and France were rarely far from the brink of conflict, and the ‘confiscation’ of Aquitaine by the French king, Philip IV, was more than enough for King Edward III of England. He claimed the French throne, and devastated rural France with massed cavalry raids: ‘chevauchées’. French attempts to confront... More
The Hussite Crusades 1420–31
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The Hussite Crusades 1420–31

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In the early 1400s, reforming Bohemian priest, Jan Hus, denounced corruption in the Catholic Church and the institution of the papacy. The Council of Constance was convened, supposedly to arbitrate, but Hus was seized there and burned as a heretic. Open revolt now broke out amongst his followers, the Hussites,... More
The Least Religious Countries c. 2000
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The Least Religious Countries c. 2000

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A survey conducted in 2018 amongst young people in 12 European countries showed very large proportions who denied having any faith at all: the Czech Republic was the least religious country with 91% of 16–29-year-olds claiming no religious affiliation. Only in Poland, Portugal and Ireland did more than 10% of... More
The Lutheran Reformation in Central Europe c. 1560
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The Lutheran Reformation in Central Europe c. 1560

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The Reformation emerged against a background of growing criticism of the temporal power and wealth of the Roman Catholic Church. This perceived corruption was epitomized by practices such as the selling of indulgences by the clergy, which absolved penitents and promised remission of their sins. In 1517 Martin Luther (1483–1546),... More
The Mongol Invasion of Europe and the Near East 1237-60
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The Mongol Invasion of Europe and the Near East 1237-60

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The Mongol tribes of northern China coalesced into the Mongol empire under the rule of Genghis Khan (? 1167–1227) in 1206. He set in motion a series of invasions that would reverberate in Europe for the following 50 years. By the time of his death, his armies had conquered as... More
The Nestorian Church 50-850 CE
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The Nestorian Church 50-850 CE

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Under intense political pressure from the Sasanian Empire, the Persian church declared its independence from the Roman Church in 424 CE. Four years later Nestorius was appointed patriarch of Constantinople and soon provoked a doctrinal storm by challenging the established church position that Mary was a theotokos (God-bearer), declaring that... More
The Norman Consolidation in England, Wales and Southern Scotland 1086–1200
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The Norman Consolidation in England, Wales and Southern Scotland 1086–1200

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Norman castles were a foreign intrusion on the British landscape. The signature Saxon defensive structure was the burh, a fortified settlement that protected ruler and ruled alike. The Normans, greatly outnumbered by a hostile native population, used earthwork motte-and-bailey structures for the first-wave of subjugation, following up with massive ‘statement’... More
The Protestant Reformation in Ireland 1541
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The Protestant Reformation in Ireland 1541

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Henry VIII extended the policies of the English Reformation to Ireland, but less profitably to the Crown. His ‘amiable persuasions’ included bribing the feudal nobles to swear allegiance to him with grants of confiscated monastic land. Edward VI (r. 1547–53) continued his father’s programme, but it stalled with the accession... More
The Second Crusade 1146–48
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The Second Crusade 1146–48

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The Second Crusade was triggered by the fall of Edessa to the Muslim warlord Zengi. It had a promising start when it was led for the first time by European kings. Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, along with fellow nobility, commanded contingents from across Christian Europe.... More
The Second Reformation: International Calvinism 1536–1619
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The Second Reformation: International Calvinism 1536–1619

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The reformed tradition began in 1519 in Zürich under Huldrych Zwingli. He led a group of Swiss theologians who joined Luther in teaching salvation by faith and the exclusive authority of Scripture, advocating purification of the Church and Christian life, and rejecting Christ’s bodily presence in the Eucharist, which led... More
The Seventh Crusade of King Louis 1248–54 and 1270
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The Seventh Crusade of King Louis 1248–54 and 1270

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The ‘Liberate Jerusalem by first conquering Egypt’ strategy had been tried first, and failed disastrously, in the 5th Crusade. With a confidence not matched by military competence, Louis IX of France decided to replicate the strategy in 1248. Once more, Damiette, at the mouth of the Nile, was taken. Again,... More